Before talking about Khilafat, we have to examine the general nature of the national movement initiated by the Indian National Congress in India. The national movement was not intended to be against the British Government as such. The movement was organized without causing pain to the British and supporting the government. Historians agree that till 1942, Congress had not raised any demand for complete freedom and did not ask the British to quit India. The actual freedom struggle starts with the Quit India movement only. From Mahatma Gandhi’s book”My experiments with truth” a clear picture of his idea about how the struggle should be organized is available. Gandhiji had even once published leaflets asking people to join the Bristish army.
Now we will see the circumstances under which Khilafat Movement was initiated. “Khalifa” is considered the unquestioned supreme leader of all Muslims of the world. Turkey was a Muslim nation. All Muslims are bound to obey the orders and commands of the Khalifa. They valued and respected him. Abu Backer was the first Khalifa of Turkey. The role was inherited by the subsequent Sultans of the state. During the First World War, Turkey joined sides with Germany. Britain was on the opposite side. They doubted whether the Indian Muslims would turn against them since Turkey sided with Germany in the war. Indian Viceroy had disclosed the true stand taken by Indian Muslims. Since the war was not a religious one, it was confirmed that the Indian Muslims will stand with the British and many Muslims of Malabar joined the British army and fought in the war. In the British army, there was even a regiment exclusively of Muslims. Its name was “77th Mappila Rifles”. Ahamad Kutty son of Raosahib Chekkutty Inspector was a Subedar of this unit.
Germany was defeated in the war. The Sultan and Khalifa of Turkey, Vahadudin entered into a treaty with Britain. Turkey had to surrender several areas it held to British under the treaty. With this Turkey lost its Khalifa status. The loss was not appreciated by the orthodox Muslims of the state. This was followed by a struggle under the leadership of its national leader, Mustaffa Kamal Pasha. Sultan Vahduddin condemned Kamal Pasha with death penalty. The revolutionaries avoided arrests and formed a public assembly at Ankara and decided to separate the status of Sultan and Khalifa. In November 1922, due to a Muslim renaissance, it was declared that even a non –Muslim could be the president of Turkey. After this declaration Vahaduddin sought refuge in a British Naval ship. The Status of Sultan and Kalifa in Turkey was lost due to Vahadudin and renaissance group led Kamal Pasha came to power. The loss of Khalifa status to Turkey did not evoke any protests from other Muslim Nations. Even in Turkey there were no protests seeking reinstatement of that status. But the demand for that came from Indian Muslims only. Who was to reinstate this? – Vahaduddin or Kamal Pasha and his group who separated the role of Sultan and Khalifa and obliterated the Khalifa status forever? Even though illogical, the demand was that this should be reinstated by the British. If so, who had the powers to rescind the agreement made between Vahadudin and British? These problems were also there before the British. It seemed that the British had clearly understood the emotions of Indian Muslims. It was in this context that the British Prime minister made a statement that the demand of Indian Muslims was genuine.
To restore the Khalifa Status to Turkey a Khilafat movement was started in India in 1919. The first meeting to discuss the issue was held in Delhi. Mahatma Gandhi was also invited to the meeting. The leaders of the movement knew well that Gandhiji was an ardent supporter of abolishment of cow slaughter. As such they agreed to include this subject also in the agenda. Though initially Gandhiji wanted to discuss cow slaughter in the meeting, he later changed his mind because the issues were totally unconnected. But Moulana Abdul Bari Sahib who knew the feelings of Gandhiji appealed in the meeting to the Muslims as follows:
“It is immaterial whether Hindus join us in Khilafat issue or not. Considering that this is the land of Hindus, we should avoid cow slaughter to honor their emotions.”
The Delhi conference was to decide the method of organizing Khilafat agitation. A lively discussion on the issue was held in the meeting. Moulana Hasrat Mohani suggested that the outline of the agitation should be based on Swadeshi vow and rejection of foreign goods by all Hindus and Muslims. Gandhiji was thinking of local production of alternatives to foreign goods before such rejection. If we are to reject foreign cloths we should be able to indigenously produce and distribute enough clothes here itself. In the absence of this he was sure that the program of rejection of foreign clothes cannot be successfully implemented. The right way to oppose the British Government was to stop cooperating with them. When Gandhiji said “Non-cooperation” it was approved in the Khilafat meeting. The national movement was also following a similar method of agitation. With this, the method of agitation by sponsors of Khilafat and Congress became one and the same. Khilafat in the true sense was a struggle of noncooperation.
“Muslims will stop all cooperation with the government. The people have a right for that. We are not liable or bound to accept honors or positions awarded by the government. We are not bound to continue in government service too. If the government decides to deceive us in an important matter like Khilafat, we have nothing to offer but noncooperation. Therefore, when deceived, we have the right to stop cooperating with the government. The Khilafat agitation should be exclusively and only by withdrawing cooperation to the British government.”
As per these directives, Khilafat committees were formed and started functioning all over India. Malabar District Congress was formed in 1910. The leaders of Congress in Malabar were K.Madhavan Nair and M.P.Narayana Menon. When Khilafat committees were formed all over India, there were similar efforts in Malabar also. The Congress leaders of Malabar who knew well the psychology of Malabar Muslims were against this movement. Khalifa issue is an internal matter of an outside nation. It does not have to be linked with the political unity of Indian public or affect it. But when leaders like Gandhiji are fighting against the British, a similar fight by Muslims for restoration of Khilaft status to Turkey will do well for Congress. At the same time, if Khilafat committees were formed in Malabar that will be a highly dangerous move. Illiterate and ill advised Moplahs will view any issue only as a threat against their religion. The scary remains of atrocities committed by Moplahs during the invasions of Malabar by Hyder and Tipu were abundantly visible everywhere reminding us of those wretched pasts. The Hindus had suffered the evil consequences of several Muslim outrages, both big and small, that followed these attacks. The Congress leaders advised Gandhiji and his team that we should be on our guard against repetition of similar outrages on Hindus. But the national leadership was of the firm opinion that Khilafat committees should be formed in Malabar also to strengthen the freedom movement. National leaders including Gandhiji were under the impression that the control of Khilafat movement will be retained safely in the hands of Congress. Since the main plank of the agitation was merely noncooperation, the leaders never thought that the Malabar Muslims will deal with it differently. Gandhiji’s “Swaraj” slogan had not made any impact in Malabar and as such they felt it necessary to seek help of the Muslims to strengthen the hands of Congress here.
Before going into details of formation of Khilafat committees here, we have to once again examine the general state of affairs connected with Muslims in Malabar. Muslim outrages were carried out mainly in Valluvanad and Eranad taluks. We have already seen that several minor and major outrages were carried out in these areas subsequent to the invasions by Hyder and Tippu. Sri. M.P.Narayana Menon was one Congress man who justified these atrocities by citing the reason as retaliation by the tenants against the Jenmis (landlords) for the inhuman treatment and exploitation by the latter. A man, who wore Moplah costumes as a youngster and supported their atrocities as a grown up man, started forming “Kudiyan Samghams” (organization of tenants.) He had also published a journal named Kudiyan or “The Tenant “.
A landlord gives a part of his land to a person for a fixed term for cultivation either on terms of Kanam or Pattam. The maximum period for which the agreement is valid was fourteen years. The non -adherence to the terms of agreement was considered a breach of contract and the land lord had the right to evict the tenant from the land in such cases. The tenants of Malabar were not entirely Muslims. There were many Hindus among them. None of them used to break the terms of the agreement with land lord. Those who resorted to this were only a few Moplahs belonging to Eranad and Valluvanad taluks. They turned against the Hindus even in cases which were of an interpersonal nature, due to rumors. They treated such issues as a war against their religion.
The government had received two anonymous letters about the large scale violence prior to the Moplah rebellion of 1921. The contents of it was that the practice of evicting Moplah tenants should be stopped forthwith failing which there will be a virtual blood bath in Malabar. On the basis of this the Government appointed Malabar Collector Mr. Logan as an Enquiry Commissioner. He went deep into all issues connected with the outrages taken place in Malabar and the general state of affairs of tenants of Malabar and submitted a detailed report to the Government in June1882. The relevant points of the report are as under:
- At the commencement of British rule the landlord or Jenmi had only one third right over the produce harvested by tenants. Even this would be reduced proportionately if he had received any advance or rent.
- The Jenmi used to enjoy several privileges other than rent while he was in certain high-ranking positions.
- The British authorities misunderstood the position of Jenmi Based on Roman tradition they believed that they were real owners of land. Accordingly they were bestowed with privileges appropriate to such ownership.
- To revise land taxes it needs to be enquired to find out what the real taxes were.
- Disputes relating to sharing of increased benefits on account of increase in prices of produce between the land lord and tenants increased. The Roman concept was ratified by the Courts. In respect of those tenants who did not obey the terms, attempts were made to evict them from the land they cultivated.
- All cultivators were heavily indebted.
Mr. Logan continues his report like this.
“When a landlord evicts a tenant, who was managing well his cultivation, either through legal means or otherwise, a Moplah tenant believed that killing of such a landlord was justifiable under the provisions of his religious tenets. Killing a landlord and getting killed in turn was considered fair enough on the basis of this belief.”
He also pointed out about the issues to be taken into consideration before enacting suitable legislation to deal with the situation.
- While enacting a law the only person the government should take into consideration is the real cultivator who directly tills the land.
- The rights of the Jenmi to evict the tenant should be restricted through necessary enactment.
- The land lord definitely has the right to seek a fair rent for the land.
- The traditional right for selling the produce to whomsoever he likes and appropriating the profits is exclusively that of the tenant.
Based on Logan’s report the government made some changes in the legislation process.
Tenant’s Relief Committee formed by M P Narayana Menon was on the firm understanding that the revolts were solely due to strained Jenmi- Kudiyan (landlord/ tenant) relationships. To strengthen the Congress the Muslims should be placated and for this Mr.Narayana Menon decided to be a full time Congress worker. He took charge as the secretary of Eranad congress committee in 1919. He formed the Malabar Kudiyan Samgham in 1920. Mr. Menon was helped by Kattilassery Muhammad Musalyar, Parayil Muhammad Haji and Muhammad Musayar of Perintalmanna etc. for establishing units of the Kudiyan Samgham and their offices. Later this organization merged with the Khilafat committee. The major leaders of Congress in Malabar were lawyers like Sarvasri. K.Madhavan Nair, U Gopla Menon, Manjeri Ramaiyar and Vallattukara Rajas, & Nilambur Thirumulpads. These leaders were in turn controlled by Sarvasri. Salem Raghavachariyar, Kasthurirangayyar, C Sankaran Nair, K.P.Kesava Menon, Dr. T M Nair etc. The Indian National Congress president at the material period was Madam Annie Besant.
A meeting of Congress was held in Manjeri in 1920. The only intention behind it was to bring the Moplahs into the organization and thus strengthen it. About three thousand people participated in the meeting presided over by Nilambur Thirumulpad (Senior)
For the promotion of Non-cooperation and Khilafat movements, Mahatma Gandhi and Shoukat Ali reached Kozhikode on 18th August 1920. Gandhiji addressed a gathering of about a quarter lakh people at the beach and appealed to the Muslims thus:
“The Khalifa of Turkey is the descendant of Prophet Mohammad. While he is the undisputed religious and spiritual leader of all the Muslims of the world, abolishment of Khalifa was a gross injustice to the belief system of all Muslims. As such it is the duty of all Muslims to stop cooperating with the British. Hindus should join shoulder to shoulder with their Muslim brothers for success of Khilafat movement. If it does not materialize by noncooperation alone, Muslims should resort to the means detailed in Koran to fight with the British for saving Islam.”
A reading between the lines of what Gandhi said will show that his intention behind Khilafat movement was not to fight for India’s independence but solely to attract Muslims to Congress on the pretext of restoring Khalifadom to Turkey.
Immediately afterwards anonymous news spread that Islam is in danger.
Leaders like Sri.E Moidu Moulavi and Ali Muslyar etc. were actively engaged in inspiring Muslims for participating in Khilafat. The “vegetarian” idea of noncooperation did not have any impact on them. The public speeches made by these leaders were enough to add fuel to the fire in the minds of Moplahs already infuriated by religious extremism. Moidu Mowlavi’s speech was like as follows.
“The intention of the government is to eradicate Islam from the face of earth. Islam is against Christianity and hence it should be wiped out. This is their decision. All Ulemas and their organizations should join together in Khilafat and protect Islam, if necessary by sacrificing even their lives. God has given Musalman the permission to raise sword against opponents whenever an opportunity comes. No one in the universe can stop it. Be prepared to fight it with weapons and power whenever occasion arises.”
Such propaganda was tracked down by the CID wing of police.
“Noncooperation is only a drama. Like some students picketing toddy shops and getting beaten up by the public, setting fire to clothes, it is absurd dramatics only. The Khilafat movement is serious and honest, same time, daring too. Gandhiji and nonviolence is not important to them. Behind the scene they are making war preparations, concealed from the eyes of the government. Moplahs have taken Congress only as a hedge behind which they can do this.”
This information was quite factual. We have already seen that there was a Moplah division named 77 Rifles Unit in British army who fought in the First World War against Germany for whom Turkey was an ally. Similarly there were units like 273 Malabar Infantry, 88 Carnatic Infantry, etc. where many Moplahs had served. Those who retired after the war, decided to participate in Khilafat. Those who had held high positions in the army commenced giving arms training to the Moplahs. They started collecting and accumulating weapons like swords, spears etc.
The visit of Gandhiji and Shoukat Ali stimulated the motivation of Moplahs. The speech made by Gandhiji at Kozhikode Beach was fiery enough to boil the blood of Moplahs. In the name of Khilafat, Congress really gained much acceptance among Muslims. In Eranad and Valluvanad taluks alone there were more than 200 committees and 20000 members.
Even while the movement was going strong, it is worthwhile to note that there were many Muslims who did not support this movement. As far as India was concerned there was no need for an agitation to get back the Khalifadom to Turkey. They said that while even in Turkey such a movement was not active, instgating the illiterate Muslims here with religious frenzy was wrong. The reason for absence of Khilafat movement in southern and northern Malabar was due to this. Only in Eranad and Valluvanad taluks, the association between Congress and Khilafat Committees remained. The Kondotty Thangal and his followers were against Khilafat. Most of the Muslims from Areakode, Edavanna areas kept themselves away from the movement. In Ponnani, an anti Khilafat conference itself was held under the leadership of Makhdum Thangal. Congress leaders successfully persuaded to send back the furious Muslims who marched towards the venue of Ponnani conference.
The CID had been repeatedly reporting to higher authorities that if the Muslims started any agitation, the consequences would be severe. Moplahs will create a riot like situation. The intelligence reports pointed out that they will behead Hindus and rape Hindu women. It is the duty of the government to suppress any agitation attempted by the Moplahs. The government considered the safety of Hindus and those Muslims who did not participate in the struggle very important. The reports warned of a big mutiny in the offing. In such a case the same will have to be dealt with forcefully. It may involve even Muslims who were in no way guilty. To avoid this, steps should be taken by Congress against Khilafat. It is the Congressmen who instigate the Muslims to revolt. The government thought that if they could be silenced the revolt will die out on its own in the beginning stage itself. Accordingly on 5th February 1921, Government made a proclamation banning of public meetings.
“Since there were plans to hold many Khilafat conferences and as a result the illiterate Moplahs will attack not only the Government but Hindus too, due to hatred and this will lead to disruption of peace and eruption of a revolt, It is ordered that in no meetings held in Eranad, none of Variyankunnnath Mohammad Haji, K.Madhavan Nair, U.Gopala Menon or other Khilafat leader should speak and no meetings should be held.”
The organizers of Khilafat had planned to hold mammoth meetings at Kottakkal, Thanur Kozhikode etc. This prohibition order was announced when the squad work for bringing in thousands of people was actively going on. Mr. Yakub Hassan had reached Kozhikode on 5th February 1921 to participate in these meetings on invitation from the Congress leaders. On the previous day of the meeting, Police arrested Yakub hasan, K. Madhavan Nair, U. Goplala Menon, and Ponmadathil Moideen Koya. The court punished them with 6 months imprisonment. Then Sarvashri. K.P.Gopala Menon, A Karunakara Menon, Ramaswami Iyer, S. Chidambaram entered the scene to strengthen the power of Congress. Protesting against the arrest of Congress leaders, a procession of about 12000 people marched towards the residence of Collector Mr. Thomas. But the members of Army’s Licester regiment (Leicestershire Regiment) blocked them on the way. Later both the parties came to an understanding and the protesters went back on their own.
It was immediately after the arrest of Congress leaders that the Kerala Pradesh Congress conference was held at Ottapalam during 23rd -27th of April 1921. The Government realized that the Khilafat movement was gaining strength even after arrests of Congress leaders and the consequences of it in Malabar were going to be quite serious and alarming. This prompted them to take stricter actions against it. Maximum participation of Moplahs in Ottapalam conference was from Eranad and Valluvanad taluks. Malabar Special Police had been keeping strict vigil at the place. The government had decided that there are chances of a riotous situation emerging where so many Muslims congregate and in which case, very tough measures were to be taken to control the situation. But nothing unfortunate happened during the first five days, though the Muslims had tried to instigate trouble by shouting and howling at the flag march conducted by the police on the previous day.
It was on the concluding day of the meeting (i.e. on 27th) that one Khilafat volunteer, Veerankuty from Angadippuram tried to manhandle a MSP constable. The police took him into custody and tortured him in the police station. With this the Moplahs who attended the meeting got wild and turned against the police. They marched towards the police station. Though, Congress leaders like Sri. Ramunni Menon tried to pacify them it did not work. The MSP resorted to a lathi charge in which leaders like Ramunni Menon were injured. Finally a team of leaders under Vaikom Muhammad Moulavi became successful in pacifying the Muslims. The Congress leaders who were not aware of the behind scene preparations by the Moplahs for an armed conflict, wanted the agitation to follow principles of Noncooperation and nonviolence and continued to work in that direction.
Though the real motive behind Khilafat was to restore the Khalifa status to Turkey, in Malabar efforts were being made to introduce an Islamic regime and convert Malabar into a Khilafat state after anointing a Khalifa for Malabar.
